- Various forms of hypnosis, trance, and altered states of consciousness have been documented in a number of cultures throughout history. Hypnosis-like practices can be traced to ancient Egypt, Babylon, Greece, Persia, Britain, Scandinavia, America, Africa, India, and China. Wong Tai, a father of Chinese medicine, made an early written reference to hypnosis in 2600 BC. Hypnotic practices have played roles in religion and religious ceremonies. Mention is made in the Bible, Talmud, and Hindu Vedas, and trance-states are included in some Native American and African ceremonies.
- The term hypnosis is derived from the Greek word hypnos, meaning sleep. The origin of modern Western hypnotherapy is often traced to the Austrian physician Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815). Mesmer believed that illness is caused by an imbalance of magnetic fluids in the body that can be corrected through "animal magnetism." He asserted that the hypnotist's own personal magnetism can be transferred to a patient. The term "mesmerize" is derived from Mesmer's name.
- In the mid 20th Century, the British and American Medical Associations and the American Psychological Association endorsed hypnosis as a medical procedure. In 1995, the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH) issued a consensus statement noting the scientific evidence in favor of the use of hypnosis for chronic pain, particularly pain associated with cancer.
- The process of hypnotherapy can be divided into pre-suggestion, suggestion, and post-suggestion phases. The pre-suggestion component may include selective attentional focusing with distraction, imagery, and relaxation methods. An aim is to reach an altered state of consciousness in which the conscious mind is relaxed, the unconscious mind is more accessible, and the subject is susceptible to suggestion. In the suggestion phase, specific goals or impressions are presented, questions may be asked of the subject, or memories may be explored. The post-suggestion phase occurs after a return to a normal state of consciousness, and new behaviors based on hypnotic suggestions may be practiced. It has been suggested that there is a risk of false memories (confabulation) as a result of some types of hypnotherapy, although scientific research is limited in this area.
- The degree of susceptibility to hypnosis and suggestion appears to vary between individuals. The therapeutic goals of hypnotherapy also vary, and may include the treatment of psychological or medical conditions or alteration of behaviors/habits. Subjects may seek hypnotherapy to gain control over behaviors or emotions. Self-hypnosis techniques may be used as an adjunct to sessions with a hypnotherapist.
- There is wide variation in the training and credentials of hypnotherapists. Certification is granted by multiple organizations, with different requirements. In the United States, there is no universally accepted standard or licensing for hypnotherapists. Although many therapists are not licensed medical professionals, some doctors, dentists, and psychologists are trained in hypnotherapy and may use hypnosis in their practices. Books and audiotapes are available for training in self-hypnosis, although these have not been well evaluated scientifically. Group sessions may also be offered. The length of hypnosis sessions may vary from a single brief encounter to regularly scheduled longer appointments.
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Natural Standard developed the above evidence-based information based on a thorough systematic review of the available scientific articles. For comprehensive information about alternative and complementary therapies on the professional level, go to . Selected references are listed below.
- Alladin A, Alibhai A. Cognitive hypnotherapy for depression: an empirical investigation. Int J Clin Exp Hypn 2007 Apr;55(2):147-66.
View Abstract - Elkins G, Marcus J, Stearns V, et al. Randomized trial of a hypnosis intervention for treatment of hot flashes among breast cancer survivors. J Clin Oncol 2008 Nov 1;26(31):5022-6.
View Abstract - Flammer E, Alladin A. The efficacy of hypnotherapy in the treatment of psychosomatic disorders: meta-analytical evidence. Int J Clin Exp Hypn 2007 Jul;55(3):251-74.
View Abstract - Green JP, Jay Lynn S, Montgomery GH. A meta-analysis of gender, smoking cessation, and hypnosis:a brief communication. Int J Clin Exp Hypn 2006 Apr;54(2):224-33.
View Abstract - Huynh ME, Vandvik IH, Diseth TH. Hypnotherapy in child psychiatry: the state of the art. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2008 Jul;13(3):377-93.
View Abstract - Jensen M, Patterson DR. Hypnotic treatment of chronic pain. J Behav Med 2006 Feb;29(1):95-124.
View Abstract - Kanji N, White AR, Ernst E. Autogenic training for tension type headaches: a systematic review of controlled trials. Complement Ther Med 2006 Jun;14(2):144-50.
View Abstract - Lang EV, Berbaum KS, Pauker SG, et al. Beneficial effects of hypnosis and adverse effects of empathic attention during percutaneous tumor treatment: when being nice does not suffice. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2008 Jun;19(6):897-905.
View Abstract - Lutgendorf SK, Lang EV, Berbaum KS, et al. Effects of age on responsiveness to adjunct hypnotic analgesia during invasive medical procedures. Psychosom Med 2007 Feb-Mar;69(2):191-9.
View Abstract - Mawdsley JE, Jenkins DG, Macey MG, et al. The effect of hypnosis on systemic and rectal mucosal measures of inflammation in ulcerative colitis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2008 Jun;103(6):1460-9.
View Abstract - Montgomery GH, Bovbjerg DH, Schnur JB, et al. A randomized clinical trial of a brief hypnosis intervention to control side effects in breast surgery patients. J Natl Cancer Inst 2007 Sep 5;99(17):1304-12.
View Abstract - Richardson J, Smith JE, McCall G, et al. Hypnosis for procedure-related pain and distress in pediatric cancer patients: a systematic review of effectiveness and methodology related to hypnosis interventions. J Pain Symptom Manage 2006 Jan;31(1):70-84.
View Abstract - Schnur JB, Bovbjerg DH, David D, et al. Hypnosis decreases presurgical distress in excisional breast biopsy patients. Anesth Analg 2008 Feb;106(2):440-4.
View Abstract - Stalpers LJ, da Costa HC, Merbis MA, et al. Hypnotherapy in radiotherapy patients: a randomized trial. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2-1-2005;61(2):499-506.
View Abstract - Wark DM. What we can do with hypnosis: a brief note. Am J Clin Hypn. 2008 Jul;51(1):29-36.
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